Conscientiousness: Traits, Facets, Motivation, Relationships, Careers, And Development

Stefan Speaks

What is Conscientiousness?

Conscientiousness is a fundamental personality trait characterized by an individual’s tendency to be responsible, organized, and diligent in their pursuits.

This essential trait manifests itself through self-control, reliability, goal orientation, and an innate sense of duty. Highly conscientious people tend to excel at planning activities ahead of time and display impressive levels of self-discipline when it comes to completing tasks or navigating complicated situations.

On the other hand, individuals with low Conscientiousness may come across as laid-back or disorganized due to their relaxed attitude toward responsibilities.

This can result in struggles with maintaining routines or achieving personal goals because they have difficulty motivating themselves consistently.

Definition And Conscientiousness Personality Trait Overview

Conscientiousness is an essential and desirable personality trait that falls under the Big 5 Personality Traits, a widely recognized model in psychology used to study human personality.

This particular trait is characterized by individuals who exhibit high levels of self-discipline, thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and a strong drive for accomplishment.

For example, highly conscientious people are more likely to set long-term goals for themselves and work diligently towards them while maintaining focus on the tasks at hand.

They display an increased ability to control impulsiveness, which results in better-informed choices that align with their objectives both professionally and personally. Furthermore, research has shown that conscientious individuals often excel in science occupations owing to the domain-specific nature of this trait.

Understanding The Importance Of Conscientiousness In Personality

Conscientiousness plays a vital role in shaping one’s personality and overall life experience. It contributes to individual differences that make us who we are, influencing our behavior patterns, thought processes, and emotional responses.

A highly conscientious person tends to exhibit goal-directed behavior and adheres to socially prescribed norms for impulse control. For instance, they may create structured schedules for daily tasks or use to-do lists diligently.

These individuals also possess strong self-discipline skills that enable them to prioritize their goals over immediate gratification consistently.

The importance of this aspect of personality cannot be overstated as it significantly impacts various domains within our lives – from personal growth and professional success all the way down to relational satisfaction with friends and loved ones.

Research has shown that higher levels of Conscientiousness correlate positively with better job performance outcomes like consistency in work quality or task completion rates, while lower levels tend towards more erratic employment histories riddled by absenteeism or incompetence issues on the extreme end spectrum.

6 Facets Of Conscientiousness

Understanding the various facets of Conscientiousness provides a comprehensive insight into how this personality trait influences individuals’ daily lives and decision-making processes.

The six sub-traits within Conscientiousness are competence, orderliness, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation.

Competence refers to an individual’s belief in their abilities and skills to complete tasks effectively. Orderliness represents a preference for organization and structure in one’s environment.

Dutifulness highlights the person’s adherence to moral principles and commitment to fulfilling obligations. Achievement striving reflects the drive towards setting ambitious goals and working hard to achieve them; high achievers often exhibit this characteristic.

Self-discipline is about resisting temptations and maintaining focus on long-term objectives while overcoming short-term distractions or setbacks.

For example, highly conscientious people might consistently plan their days ahead with well-organized schedules or detailed project management tools like Trello boards or Evernote applications due to their strong inclination towards orderliness.

Competence

Competence is one of the six facets of Conscientiousness, and it refers to an individual’s level of effectiveness in completing tasks. A highly competent person is someone who consistently produces high-quality work and exhibits attention to detail.

They are often reliable and responsible individuals with a strong work ethic that drives them to take charge and complete assignments on time.

Research shows that competence associated with Conscientiousness predicts better academic outcomes such as higher grades, advanced degrees, and improved critical thinking abilities.

Orderliness

One of the facets that make up Conscientiousness is orderliness. Orderly individuals value organization and structure in their environment, preferring to keep things neat and tidy.

They are methodical in their approach to tasks, creating detailed plans and schedules to ensure they complete everything on time.

Orderliness can have significant benefits for those who possess this trait. Research has shown that having an organized work environment can improve productivity, reduce stress levels, and increase job satisfaction.

Dutifulness

Dutifulness is one of the six facets that make up Conscientiousness. People who score high in this facet tend to be responsible, dependable, and committed to meeting their obligations.

They take their responsibilities seriously and strive to fulfill them to the best of their ability. Individuals who are dutiful are often seen as reliable friends and colleagues because they can be counted on to follow through on commitments.

Achievement Striving

Achievement striving is one of the six facets or sub-traits that make up Conscientiousness. Individuals who score high in this facet are driven by the pursuit of excellence and goal attainment.

They set challenging objectives for themselves and work tirelessly towards achieving them, often going above and beyond expectations to ensure success. As a result, they tend to be highly motivated individuals who thrive on challenges, whether academic or professional.

For example, an employee with high achievement striving may seek out additional training opportunities or take on more responsibility at work in order to continue learning and growing in their career.

Self-Discipline

One critical facet of Conscientiousness is self-discipline, which refers to an individual’s ability to control their impulses and regulate their behavior.

People who score high in self-discipline tend to be reliable, organized, and more focused on long-term achievement, as they can resist immediate temptations for future rewards.

They are often strategic planners who consciously prioritize the completion of tasks according to importance, thereby avoiding procrastination and last-minute stressors. For instance, a highly conscientious student will adhere strictly to study schedules instead of being impulsive when it comes to leisure activities or entertainment value associated with checking out social media notifications, texts from friends, or playing video games.

Deliberation

Deliberation is one of the six facets of Conscientiousness, referring to the tendency to think things through and make decisions carefully. People high in deliberation are often seen as analytical and cautious, taking time to evaluate all available options before making a decision.

They tend to be reflective and introspective individuals who analyze their thoughts and actions.

Research has shown that people high in Conscientiousness with a strong sense of deliberation perform better academically, engage more actively in political discussions, and have higher job performance ratings than those low in this facet.

Conscientiousness Personality Trait: High And Low Manifestations

High Conscientiousness is characterized by features such as organizational skills, goal-directed behavior, and motivation to achieve. Individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness tend to be reliable and responsible when it comes to completing tasks.

On the other hand, low Conscientiousness manifests in traits like poor impulse control, procrastination, and lack of self-motivation.

People who score low on this personality trait struggle with setting goals and focusing on achieving them.

An example of someone exhibiting high Conscientiousness is a college student who consistently spends hours studying each night until they completely understand all material before any major exam.

High Conscientiousness: Features And Implications

Individuals with high Conscientiousness tend to be reliable, responsible, and self-disciplined. They are goal-oriented and persistent in achieving their objectives. High Conscientiousness is associated with better job performance, leadership skills, and academic achievement.

Highly conscientious people have exceptional organizational skills and can manage their time efficiently to complete tasks on time or meet last-minute demands.

They are meticulous in planning and executing plans consistently over long periods of time.

Even though consciousness is associated with higher academic achievement and job performance, there is no correlation with cognitive ability.

Low Conscientiousness: Features And Implications

People who score low on Conscientiousness tend to exhibit specific personality traits. For instance, they can often act impulsively, prioritizing immediate gratification over long-term goals.

They are prone to procrastination and may struggle with self-discipline when it comes to completing tasks or meeting deadlines.

The implications of low Conscientiousness extend beyond day-to-day interactions with others. Multiple studies have linked this trait to negative outcomes like poor academic performance, lower job performance, and reduced physical health.

Low-conscientious individuals may also experience higher levels of stress due to missed opportunities and last-minute demands that overwhelm them.

Perception And Conscientiousness

Individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness tend to perceive the world in a specific way. They are typically very detail-oriented, and they pay close attention to their surroundings, which can help them make sound judgments and avoid errors.

Conscientious people also have an excellent sense of time management, allowing them to stay on top of their tasks and accomplish goals efficiently.

On the other hand, people with low levels of Conscientiousness may struggle with these perceptions. They might be more prone to distraction or procrastination as they lack the self-discipline required for effective time management.

They may struggle to meet deadlines or prioritize tasks because they lack a clear understanding of what needs to be done first.

Overall, perception plays an essential role in how conscientious individuals behave and interact with their environment.

How Conscientious Individuals Perceive The World

Conscientious individuals tend to perceive the world in a structured and organized manner. They prefer order and routine over spontaneity, which gives them a sense of control over their environment.

This trait is evident in their work approach, where they follow rules and procedures strictly.

When it comes to decision-making processes, conscientious people tend to consider all alternatives before arriving at a conclusion. They take time to weigh the pros and cons carefully and make informed choices that lessen risks or mistakes.

The Influence Of Conscientiousness On Individual Perception

Conscientiousness has been found to have a significant influence on how individuals perceive the world around them. Highly conscientious individuals tend to be more detail-oriented, organized, and responsible in their approach to life.

Furthermore, research has suggested that those with higher levels of Conscientiousness are more likely to remember details related to their goals and aspirations.

For example, if an individual sets a goal of achieving a promotion at work, they will remember specific deadlines and requirements necessary for attaining this objective.

In terms of relationships, highly conscientious people tend to be dependable partners who value commitment and responsibility in their interactions with others.

They are also more likely than lower-scoring peers on this trait measure (i.e., “low scorers”) to effectively communicate needs within relationships whilst handling conflicts constructively.

What Motivates a Conscientious Person?

Conscientiousness is a key personality trait that plays an important role in motivation for goal-directed performance. Individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness are more likely to set clear goals and persist until they have achieved those goals.

They tend to organize their time effectively, making detailed plans and prioritizing tasks on their to-do lists accordingly.

On the other hand, individuals low in Conscientiousness may struggle with self-discipline and procrastination, leading to poor job performance and lower achievement in various areas of life.

For example, someone who lacks Conscientiousness may wait until the last minute to complete tasks and may be unable to meet deadlines or follow through on commitments.

Overall, understanding your level of Conscientiousness can help identify potential areas for improvement when it comes to motivation and productivity.

The Role Of Conscientiousness In Goal Setting And Pursuit

Individuals high in Conscientiousness tend to be diligent and goal-oriented, which can make them successful in achieving their goals. Conscientiousness reflects the motivational tendency to continually work toward setting and pursuing long-range goals.

This trait is a top predictor of positive outcomes in multiple areas, including career success and interpersonal relationships. For instance, an individual who scores high on Conscientiousness is more likely to set realistic goals and consistently work hard at achieving them until they succeed.

They tend to prioritize tasks according to their importance and work systematically towards completing them without procrastination or distractions.

The Interplay Between Conscientiousness And Personal Drive

Conscientiousness is a personality trait that is strongly linked with personal drive and goal-directed behavior. Highly conscientious individuals tend to be dependable, organized, and self-disciplined, which means they are more likely to set goals for themselves and work towards achieving them.

The interplay between Conscientiousness and personal drive has significant implications for various aspects of life. For example, career success often requires high levels of both traits, as individuals must be motivated enough to pursue their goals while also maintaining the discipline necessary to complete tasks on time and without errors.

Overall, understanding the importance of both traits in everyday life can help people achieve their full potential by fostering increased motivation, productivity, and goal orientation.

Biological Basis Of Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness as a personality trait has been linked to various biological factors. Studies show that Conscientious individuals have certain genetic variations that contribute to their traits, such as the dopamine D2 receptor gene and the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene.

Additionally, research has found differences in brain structures between people with high and low levels of Conscientiousness. For instance, highly conscientious individuals tend to have larger prefrontal cortex volume compared to those low in Conscientiousness, indicating greater cognitive control and planning abilities.

Overall, while there is still much we do not know about the biological basis of personality traits such as Conscientiousness, these findings suggest that our genes and brain structures may influence how we approach tasks and make decisions related to goal pursuit.

Genetic Factors And Heritability

Studies have shown that Conscientiousness has a heritability of around 50 percent, indicating the genetic influence on this personality trait. Specific genes like SMOC1 and LAMB1 are associated with Conscientiousness.

Additionally, all facets of Conscientiousness have been found to be influenced by both common genes and unique environmental factors. This means that while some people may be naturally more conscientious due to their genetics, external factors such as upbringing and life experiences can also play a role in shaping one’s level of Conscientiousness.

Brain Structure And Conscientiousness

Recent studies have reported a significant association between brain structure and the conscientiousness trait. One such study found that individuals with higher levels of trait conscientiousness had larger gray matter volumes (GMV) in areas like the bilateral superior parietal lobe (SPL).

Additionally, research has suggested that heritability plays a significant role in influencing this brain structure-consciousness relationship.

Furthermore, lower levels of dopamine transporter availability have been observed in individuals scoring high on tests measuring Conscientiousness, indicating an elevated level of self-control and impulse control associated with this personality attribute.

In conclusion, while specific facets may play into which regions or mechanisms are affected by Conscientiousness, it is clear that there is a consistent link between certain aspects of neural processing and the ways an individual behaves based on their level of trait conscientiousness.

Neurotransmitter Differences In Conscientious Individuals

Research has shown that individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness have a different balance of neurotransmitters in their brains than those with lower levels.

In particular, studies have found that higher levels of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) are associated with Conscientiousness.

For example, a highly conscientious individual may be very driven to complete tasks on their to-do list but struggle when last-minute demands require them to act spontaneously.

Conscientiousness And Relationships

Individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness tend to be reliable, responsible, and dependable in their relationships. They are more likely to follow through on commitments and show up when they say they will.

Moreover, research has shown that people with high conscientiousness scores tend to have better quality and longer-lasting relationships. They are less likely to engage in risky behavior, such as cheating or substance abuse, which can damage a relationship.

On the other hand, individuals who score low in Conscientiousness may struggle in relationships due to their tendency towards impulsivity and lack of self-control.

The Influence Of Conscientiousness On Interpersonal Relationships

Conscientiousness plays a vital role in shaping an individual’s interpersonal relationships. People high in Conscientiousness tend to be reliable, organized, and responsible, which can foster trust and positive social connections with others.

Research shows that conscientious adolescents are more likely to have positive peer relationships while also reducing their vulnerability to poorer ones. The trait is also associated with lower rates of behavior related to divorce, such as extramarital affairs, spousal abuse, and alcohol use disorder.

Communication And Conflict Resolution Styles Of Conscientious Individuals

Conscientiousness plays a crucial role in how individuals communicate and resolve conflicts. Highly conscientious individuals tend to be excellent communicators, expressing their thoughts and ideas clearly while also listening attentively.

In contrast, those low in Conscientiousness may struggle with communication skills or avoid confrontation altogether. They may be more likely to react impulsively during a conflict rather than working towards resolution through cooperation and compromise.

Overall, being highly conscientious often leads to better communication skills, which can help individuals navigate relationships and work collaboratively with others.

Careers And Conscientiousness

When it comes to careers, individuals with high levels of Conscientiousness tend to excel in roles that require attention to detail, organization, and consistency.

These traits make them valuable employees in fields such as accounting, law enforcement, healthcare administration, and project management. Their reliability and strong work ethic also make them excellent leaders in these industries.

Interestingly enough, personality traits can also influence career preferences. Research has shown that individuals who score high on extraversion are more likely to seek out social environments such as sales or public relations positions, while those higher in openness tend towards creative pursuits like writing or design.

However, studies reveal that it is generally only when combined with Conscientiousness that these personality factors truly correlate with job performance.

Suitable Careers For Individuals With High Conscientiousness

Individuals with high Conscientiousness tend to excel in detail-oriented, structured roles that require a strong work ethic and a focus on quality. Here are some suitable career choices for individuals with high Conscientiousness:

Accountant: Attention to detail and adherence to rules and regulations are critical traits for success in this field.
Project Manager: With a focus on organization, planning, and meeting deadlines, project management requires the ability to manage resources effectively.
Healthcare Professional: Whether it be as a doctor, nurse, or therapist, healthcare professionals must have excellent attention to detail and adhere to strict protocols.
Teacher: Successful educators must possess excellent organizational skills and be diligent in their preparation of lesson plans.
Law Enforcement Officer: Obedience to laws and regulations is essential in law enforcement, as is attending court appearances and maintaining documentation meticulously.
Researcher/Scientist: Due diligence permeates every aspect of research, from study design through to analysis requiring careful attention to detail throughout the process.
Financial Analyst: The ability to analyze intricate financial data accurately requires extensive mathematical skills and precision for accuracy.
Executive/Managerial Role: Leadership positions require individuals who are self-disciplined and task-oriented with exceptional team management abilities.

People with high Conscientiousness also tend to score highly in emotional stability, which means they can handle stressful situations without succumbing to personal stress. Individuals scoring highly in both.

Conscientiousness and emotional stability are often successful entrepreneurs or freelancers since these roles require one’s self-motivation, discipline, and deadline-abiding mentality while not being emotionally overwhelmed by challenging situations due to their intrinsic drive for excellence.

Job Performance And Leadership Styles In Conscientious Individuals

Conscientious individuals tend to perform well in their jobs and excel in leadership positions. Their attention to detail, commitment to hard work, and ability to manage their time effectively make them valuable assets in the workplace.

In fact, multiple studies have shown that conscientiousness levels of workers have a significant relationship with job performance, regardless of occupation or industry.

In terms of leadership styles, highly conscientious leaders tend to be task-oriented and goal-focused. They prioritize organization and efficiency while also being supportive of their team member’s personal growth and development.

Conscientious leaders are often seen as role models by those they supervise due to their strong work ethic and sense of responsibility.

Conscientiousness And Life Outcomes

Research has shown that individuals who score high on Conscientiousness tend to have better life outcomes than those who score low. This personality trait predicts a variety of positive results, including increased job performance, career success, and higher levels of well-being and life satisfaction.

Highly conscientious people are known for being responsible, self-disciplined, and reliable.

On the other hand, individuals with lower levels of Conscientiousness may struggle to complete tasks they desire due to their impulsive tendencies or lack of motivation.

Without a sense of responsibility towards their goals or commitments in both personal and professional settings, it can be challenging for them to achieve success.

Health And Well-being Of Conscientious Individuals

Research has consistently shown that high conscientiousness levels are associated with better health outcomes and a longer life span.

Conscientious individuals tend to have healthier lifestyle behaviors, such as regular exercise, healthy food choices, getting enough sleep, and avoiding risky actions.

In addition to physical health benefits, highly conscientious people also experience higher psychological well-being. Individuals with this trait are more likely to cope effectively with stressors in their lives without resorting to negative coping mechanisms like smoking or alcohol abuse.

They also report experiencing greater happiness and lower levels of depression overall compared to less conscientious personality types.

The Stability Of Conscientiousness Over Time

Conscientiousness is a personality trait that is relatively stable over time. In fact, research has shown that our level of Conscientiousness tends to remain consistent throughout much of our adult lives.

This means that individuals who are naturally high in Conscientiousness tend to be diligent, responsible, and reliable for long periods of time, while those who score low on this trait may struggle with motivation and completing tasks consistently.

This stability can have significant impacts on many aspects of life, including careers, relationships, and personal development.

Conscientiousness And Life Satisfaction

Research has shown that individuals who score high in Conscientiousness tend to exhibit higher levels of life satisfaction. This is because being conscientious involves traits such as self-discipline, responsibility, and reliability, which are essential for achieving goals and fulfilling responsibilities effectively.

On the other hand, low levels of Conscientiousness can lead to decreased motivation to complete tasks and follow through on commitments. This can cause individuals to experience feelings of guilt or anxiety due to uncompleted obligations, leading to lower levels of life satisfaction overall.

It’s worth noting that while high Conscientiousness is associated with increased life satisfaction, it’s not a guaranteed predictor. Many factors contribute to an individual’s overall happiness and well-being beyond just personality traits alone.

Personality Development And Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness plays a significant role in one’s personality development.

Research suggests that Conscientiousness is relatively stable across the lifespan and can be enhanced with deliberate practice.

One commonly used measure of Conscientiousness is the NEO PI-R, which consists of six facets: competence, orderliness, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation.

Furthermore, it is important to note that developing one’s conscientious trait involves recognizing areas where improvements are needed. For instance, building a habit of prioritizing tasks appropriately by creating a schedule before initiating them may go a long way in boosting an individual’s productivity levels significantly while keeping them focused & consistent on assigned tasks.

In conclusion, conscious efforts should be made towards consciously cultivating positive traits such as Conscientiousness to achieve optimal results in various aspects of life, including career performance or interpersonal relationships.

Role Of Conscientiousness In Personality Development

Conscientiousness plays a significant role in personality development. Numerous studies have shown that this trait is associated with positive outcomes in various areas of life, including academic and career success, better health, and greater life satisfaction.

Conscientious individuals tend to be responsible, self-disciplined, and organized, and they are often hardworking people who set high goals for themselves. As a result, they can use their Conscientiousness to moderate or expand other traits, such as neuroticism. Additionally, conscientious people finish what they start, which is essential in any area of growth, such as personality development.

Commonly Used Personality Tests

Several personality tests are used to measure Conscientiousness, including:

Big 5 Personality Test: This test measures the Big Five personality traits, including Conscientiousness. Questions relate to aspects such as organization, efficiency, and responsibility.
HEXACO Personality Inventory: This test measures six personality dimensions, including honesty-humility and Conscientiousness. Questions cover facets like diligence and thoroughness.
California Psychological Inventory: This test includes a subscale for Conscientiousness that assesses traits like reliability, responsibility, and self-discipline.
International Personality Item Pool (IPIP): The IPIP is an online-based personality questionnaire that measures five factors of personality, including Conscientiousness. It includes questions about the organization, persistence in goal attainment, and attention to detail.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2): Although not specifically designed to measure Conscientiousness, the MMPI-2 includes scales measuring traits related to Conscientiousness, such as responsibility and self-control.

These tests can provide insight into an individual’s level of Conscientiousness and help identify areas for personal development.

Strategies For Enhancing Conscientiousness In Personality Development

Developing and sustaining Conscientiousness is essential for personal growth and success.

Here are seven strategies that can help:

Set clear goals: Having specific, achievable goals can help you focus on tasks and prevent distractions.
Create a schedule: Establishing a routine can help reinforce self-discipline and make it easier to prioritize tasks.
Break down larger tasks: Breaking larger tasks into smaller, more manageable pieces can make them less daunting and increase the likelihood of completing them.
Practice self-reflection: Regularly reflecting on your actions and decisions can help you identify areas for improvement and increase self-awareness.
Surround yourself with conscientious individuals: Being around others who prioritize responsibility and reliability can positively influence your own behavior.
Stay accountable: Holding yourself accountable for completing tasks or meeting deadlines can improve motivation and reinforce conscientious habits.
Celebrate small successes: Recognizing and celebrating even small accomplishments can boost confidence and encourage continued effort towards larger goals.

By applying these strategies, individuals, at any point in their lives, can enhance their levels of Conscientiousness, leading to greater success in both personal growth and professional development

The Impact Of Personal Growth On Levels Of Conscientiousness

Personal growth plays a significant role in increasing levels of Conscientiousness. As individuals work to develop themselves and become more self-aware, they tend to exhibit greater discipline, responsibility, and organization – all characteristics associated with high Conscientiousness.

Moreover, studies have shown that cultivating Conscientiousness is not merely a matter of developing new habits; it often requires unlearning old ones as well. For instance, impulsive decision-making and procrastination are behaviors that can hinder one’s level of Conscientiousness.

Ultimately the impact of personal development on levels of Conscientiousness is crucial for both professional success and overall well-being. Career achievements hinge heavily upon traits like efficacy in accomplishing job responsibilities over time while maintaining quality standards – hallmarks that come naturally to highly conscious employees who strive for excellence consistently throughout their careers.

Techniques For Cultivating And Moderating Conscientiousness

Here are some practical techniques to enhance and regulate Conscientiousness:

Create a schedule: Make a detailed daily or weekly schedule and religiously stick to it. This will help you stay organized and remain mindful of your tasks.
Set realistic goals: Identify specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals for yourself. This approach can help you focus your energy and motivation toward achieving them.
Practice self-reflection: Take time to reflect on your behavior, values, and motivations regularly. You can do this by keeping a diary or journal where you record your thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Develop positive habits: Engage in activities that require discipline and persistence, such as regular exercise, healthy eating habits, or learning new skills.
Seek feedback: Ask for honest feedback from friends, family members, or colleagues about how they perceive your conscientiousness levels in different situations.
Use mindfulness techniques: Adopt practices like meditation or yoga to cultivate mindfulness, which promotes greater self-awareness and Conscientiousness.
Personality Development: Consider taking a Personality Development Progralike like Trait Masters Personality Development Masterclass.

Applying these techniques consistently can help you become more conscientious, which has been shown to have significant benefits, including better job performance, more stable relationships, improved health outcomes, and greater life satisfaction (Soldz & Vaillant 1999).

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